Law 17: Corner kick

A corner kick is a method of restarting play in a game of association football. It was first devised in Sheffield under the Sheffield Rules 1867. It was adopted by the Football Association on 17 February 1872.
A corner kick is awarded to the attacking team when the ball leaves the field of play by crossing the goal line (either on the ground or in the air) without a goal having been scored, having been last touched by a defending player. The kick is taken from the corners of the field of play nearest to where the ball crossed the goal line. Corners are considered to be a reasonable goalscoring opportunity for the attacking side, though not as much as a penalty kick or a direct free kick near the edge of the penalty area.
The assistant referee will signal that a corner should be awarded by first raising his flag, then using it to point at the corner arc on their side of the pitch; however, this is not an indication of which side the kick should be taken from. The referee then awards the corner by pointing to the relevant arc.

Procedure

When taking a corner kick, the ball is initially placed so that some part of the ball is within the corner arc closest to where the ball went out of play. The corner arc is located at the intersection of the goalline and touchline and has a radius of one yard. All defending players must be at least ten yards (9.15 metres) from the corner arc until the corner kick is taken. A corner kick is taken as soon as the ball is kicked and moves.
The attacking side may score directly from a corner kick, though this is uncommon.
An attacking player who directly receives the ball from a corner kick cannot be penalised for offside.

Infringements

Opposing players must retire the required distance as stated above. Failure to do so may constitute misconduct and be punished by a caution (yellow card).
It is an offence for the kicker to touch the ball a second time until it has been touched by another player; this is punishable by an indirect free kick to the defending team from where the offence occurred unless the second touch was also a more serious offence, in which case other punishment such as a direct free kick is awarded to defending team.

Tactics in taking and defending a corner

A common tactic is for several attackers to stand close in front of the goal, whereupon the corner taker crosses the ball for them to head into the goal.
The defending team may choose to form a wall of players in an attempt to force the ball to be played to an area which is more easily defended. However, this is not done often because defending players must remain at least 10 yards from the ball until it is in play.
The defending team also has the choice of whether to instruct a player to place him or herself beside one or both of the goalposts to provide protection to the goal in addition to the goalkeeper. The thinking behind placing a player beside a goalpost is that it means more of the goal area is protected and there is no loss in the ability to play an offside trap because offside does not apply for the first touch from a corner, and it compensates for a keeper's positioning and/or reach.
The defending team also has to decide how many players it needs to defend a corner. Teams may withdraw every player into a defensive area, however this diminishes the potential for a counter-attack if possession is regained, and as such, allows the attacking side to commit more players to attacking the goal. Withdrawing all players into a defensive area also means that if the ball is cleared from an initial cross, it is more than likely that the attacking team will regain possession of the ball and begin a new attack.
In situations where a set-piece, such as a corner, is awarded to a side trailing by a single goal at the closing stages of a match where conceding further is of minimal consequence (i.e. in a knockout tournament) a team may commit all their players, including their goalkeeper, to the attack.

Short corner

An alternative strategy for the attacking team is to take a short corner. The ball is kicked to a player located within ten yards of the kicker, to create a better angle of approach toward the goal.
A rarely-seen "trick" version of the short corner was famously attempted during a tense top-of-the-table Premier League clash between Manchester United and Chelsea in the 2008–09 season, causing much controversy and media discussion. The strategy involved United's Wayne Rooney, standing at the corner flag, pretending to change his mind about taking the corner and signalling to winger Ryan Giggs to do it instead. While leaving the arc, however, Rooney sneakily touched the ball, effectively putting it into play. With Chelsea's defence unprepared and expecting a conventional corner, Giggs took the ball, sprinted with it towards goal and crossed it for teammate Cristiano Ronaldo to score with a header. On this occasion, the goal was immediately disallowed after the linesman, not having seen Rooney's taking of the corner, raised his flag, thus prompting the referee to stop play. The end result did not change much, though, as Manchester United did score again when the corner was retaken. The strategy is rare, as its great strength in the element of surprise.

Scoring a goal direct from a corner

It is possible to score direct from a corner kick (as a corner kick is a direct free kick) if sufficient swerve is given to the kick, and/or there is a strong enough wind blowing in the goalward direction. However, it was illegal until the International Football Association Board (IFAB) meeting of 15 June 1924 authorised it for the following season. This type of goal is called an Olympic goal or Olympic kick, or olimpico in Latin America. The name dates from 2 October 1924, when Argentina's Cesáreo Onzari scored against Uruguay, who had just won the 1924 Olympic title. (The first such goal was thought to have been scored by Billy Alston in Scotland on 21 August 1924, but further research showed that match had been played on 23 August 1923, and the goal was actually a header.) The first in England was by Huddersfield Town's Billy Smith on 11 October 1924. The world record holder is Dejan Petković with 8 goals. It remains a rare occurrence, often accomplished by fluke rather than intent, and with the goalkeeper usually blamed for an error.

Using corner kicks as a tie-breaker

The number of corner kicks awarded to each team has been suggested as an alternative method of tie-breaking to the current penalty shootout method. The theory behind this suggestion is that the team which during the course of play has been awarded the most corner kicks is likely to have dominated play, forcing their opponents to make more high-risk tackles and their goalkeeper to make more saves in which he was not able to gain possession of the ball but rather merely deflect it across the line outside of the goal or over the crossbar. The use of corner-kick counts as a tie-breaker has not been approved by the International Football Association Board, and as such is not used in any high-level competition.
A major critique of this suggestion to use corner kicks as a tie-breaker is the influence it could have on the game. In matches that are tied with time running out, players may be more likely to focus on winning as many corner kicks as possible and not worry about trying to actually score a goal that would win them the game. This is because it is much easier to get a corner kick than it is to score a goal. Having corner kicks as tie breakers might lead to situations where the last several minutes of a game are entirely about trying to get corner kicks with little to no attention paid on attacking the goal, which should be the main objective.
Some scoreboards for high school and college venues in the United States have statistics for fouls, shots on goal, and corner kicks earned. On television such statistics are shown periodically during play for international and other major televised matches.

Own goal anomalies

According to the laws of the game, if a player puts the ball into their own goal directly from a restart of play (e.g. direct and indirect free kicks, drop-balls, and throw-ins) without the ball being touched by any other player, a corner kick is awarded to the other team and not an "own goal" which it would appear to be. Such incidents are extremely rare.
A mistake relating to that rule appeared to be committed by referee during a Premier League derby match between Birmingham City and Aston Villa during the 2002/03 season. Aston Villa defender Olof Mellberg threw the ball towards his goalkeeper (Peter Enckelman), who seemed to miss the ball completely and the ball went into the net. The referee gave a goal to Birmingham even though it appeared that Enckelman may not have touched the ball – television replays were inconclusive. If the referee had determined that Enckelman had not touched the ball, he would have awarded a corner kick to Birmingham.

Law 16: The Goal Kick

A goal kick, called a goalie kick in some regions, is a method of restarting play in a game of association football (soccer). Its procedure is dictated by Law 16 of the Laws of the Game.

Award

A goal kick is awarded to the defending team when the ball goes out of the field of play by crossing, either on the ground or in the air, the goal line (but not the portion between the posts and under the crossbar which would constitute a goal) when the last person to touch the ball was from the attacking team. If the last person to touch the ball was a member of the defending side, a corner kick is instead awarded to the attackers.
A goal kick is awarded to the defending team when the ball is struck directly into the goal by the attacking team from an indirect free kick.

Procedure

• The ball is initially placed anywhere within the defending goal area. All opposing players must be outside the penalty area until the ball is in play. The ball must be kicked (a goalkeeper may not pick up the ball).
• The ball becomes in play as soon as it leaves the penalty area – if any player makes contact with the ball before it becomes in play the kick is retaken. If the ball fails to leave the penalty area the kick is retaken.
• A goal may be scored directly from a goal kick as a goal kick is a direct free kick, but only against the opposing team. An own goal cannot be scored from a goal kick; in the highly unlikely circumstance that the ball happened to land directly into the kicker's own goal a corner kick would be awarded to the opposing team.
• A player may not be penalised for being in an offside position directly from a goal kick.
• Goal kicks are most often taken by goalkeepers, however this is not compulsory under the laws of the game.

Infringements

Opposing players must retire the required distance as stated above. Failure to do so promptly so may constitute misconduct and be punished by a caution (yellow card). If an opposing player enters the penalty area before the ball is in play, the goal kick may be retaken.
If any player touches the ball after it is kicked, but before it is in play (i.e. before the whole of the ball has left the penalty area), the goal kick is retaken. It is an infringement for the kicker to touch the ball a second time once the ball is in play (i.e. when it has left the penalty area), before it has been touched by another player – this is punishable by an indirect free kick to the opposing team from where the offence occurred, unless the second touch was also a more serious handling offence, which is punished by a direct free kick for the opposing team.

Law 15: The Throw-in

A throw-in is a method of restarting play in a game of association football when the ball has exited the side of the field of play.

Procedure

The throw-in is taken from the point where the ball crossed the touch-line. The throw-in is taken by the opponents of the player who last touched the ball when it crossed the touch-line, either on the ground or in the air. Opposing players may stand at any distance from the thrower but no closer than 2 m (2.2 yd), so long as they are still on the pitch. A player may take a throw in at a distance further back from the touch-line, and, typically, a referee will tolerate small discrepancies between the position where the ball crossed the touch-line and the position of the throw in.
At the moment of delivering the ball, the thrower must face the field of play. He should have part of each foot either on the touch line or on the ground outside the touch line, and use both hands to deliver the ball from behind and over their head from the point where the ball left the field of play.
The ball becomes in play as soon as it enters the field of play.
A goal cannot be scored directly from a throw-in.
An own goal cannot be scored directly from a throw-in – if a player throws the ball directly into his goal without any other player touching it the result is a corner kick to the opposing side.
A player may not be penalised for an offside offence when receiving the ball directly from a throw-in.

Handspring throw-in

The handspring throw-in is a dramatic type of throw-in, rarely used in competitive games, where the player completes a front handspring (somersault) while holding the ball. Instead of landing on the hands during the handspring, the player's weight is momentarily supported entirely by the ball. This type of throw-in follows the rules that require the player to have both feet on the ground when he is releasing the ball, and that the ball is thrown from behind the head. Strong abdominal muscles are required for this throw-in.
Steve Watson of Newcastle United was famed for this technique and was able to throw the ball over 30 m. Brazilian Leah Lynn Gabriela Fortune has also been reported to be able to throw over 30 yards (27 m) with the technique.

Infringements

If an opposing player fails to respect the required distance (2m) before the ball is in play or otherwise unfairly distracts or impedes the thrower, he may receive a caution (yellow card) for unsporting behavior.
If the thrower fails to deliver the ball as per the required procedure, or delivers it from a point other than where the ball left the field of play, the throw-in is awarded to the opposing team. This is commonly known as a "foul throw", though such throws are not considered fouls.
It is an infringement for the thrower to touch the ball a second time until it has been touched by another player; this is punishable by an indirect free kick to the opposing team from where the offence occurred, unless the second touch was also a more serious handling offence, in which case it is punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick.
A goal cannot be scored directly from a throw in, nor can an own-goal. The restarts for each are a goal kick for the defending team, and a corner kick for the opposing team, respectively.
A goal keeper cannot handle a ball thrown directly to him by a teammate. This cannot be circumvented by the keeper using his feet first before handling the ball. If this infringement occurs within the goalkeeper's penalty area, an indirect free kick is awarded. If the infringement occurs outside the goalkeeper's penalty area, a direct free kick is awarded.
If, in the event that the goalkeeper takes the throw-in, the goalkeeper cannot touch the ball again until it has touched another player once it is in play. The proper restart for this infringement is an indirect free kick.

Strategy

The optimal release angle for attaining maximum distance is about 30 degrees, according to researchers at Brunel University. This angle balances the objectives of maximising height, which allows the ball more time to travel horizontally, while minimising air resistance, which slows the ball thus reducing its horizontal distance.
Delivering the ball into the penalty area from a long distance with a throw-in can be a great attacking skill, similar to a corner kick or an indirect free kick. This is a difficult distance to reach with a throw-in, and the ability to do so is a valuable skill. An early exponent of the skill was Bill Shankly when playing for Carlisle United and Preston North End in the 1930s. Shankly's dedication was such that he used to practise long throws during his summer breaks when he returned to his home village. He would throw balls over a row of houses and get the small boys of the village to fetch them back for him.
Rory Delap, a midfielder for Burton Albion is known for his long-throw abilities having resulted in many goals for Stoke. In fact, the danger factor of Delap's long throw-ins for Stoke have resulted in opponents preferring to put the ball out for a corner rather than for a throw-in.

Historical origins of the throw-in

The modern throw-in comes from the nineteenth century English public school football games. In these codes of football a variety of methods of returning the ball into play from touch were used. The modern throw-in draws upon various aspects of a number early English school games. For example, returning the ball by throwing it out was part of the Rugby and Cheltenham football rules. Like the modern throw-in the direction was not specified. The Sheffield rules instigated the throw in of the ball at right angles by the opposite side to the one that played it into touch. The two handed throw in—called line-out—is part of rugby union football. That the first side reaching the ball must throw it out (at right angles, in this case) was part of the Football Association rules and the Rossall rules.

Law 14: The Penalty Kick

A penalty kick (also known as penalty or spot kick) is a type of direct free kick in association football, taken from 12 yards (approximately 11 metres) out from the goal, on the penalty mark.
Penalty kicks are performed during normal play. They are awarded when a foul normally punishable by a direct free kick is committed within the defending player's own penalty area. Similar kicks are made in a penalty shootout in some tournaments to determine which team is victorious after a drawn match; though similar in procedure, these are not penalty kicks and are governed by slightly different rules.
In practice, penalties are converted to goals more often than not, even against world class goalkeepers. This means that penalty awards are often decisive, especially in low-scoring games. Missed penalty kicks are often demoralising to players because it is an easy opportunity to score.

Procedure

The referee gives the ball to a player on the non-offending team. The referee then instructs the goalkeeper to not come off of the goal line. While this is happening, the shooter places the ball on the penalty mark and prepares to strike the ball. The referee will then ask the goalkeeper if he/she is ready, and if so blows the whistle which lets the shooter know he/she may kick the ball. Then the goalkeeper will attempt to make a save on the shot. But the shooter cannot move backwards while moving towards the ball or stop when the shooter is very close to the ball at which time the goalkeeper usually already decided and moved toward one direction. If this happens and a goal is scored, then the kick is retaken. But if this happens and a goal is not scored, then the defense restarts with an indirect free kick from the penalty spot.

Tap penalty

A two-man penalty or "tap" penalty occurs when the penalty-taker, instead of shooting to score a goal, taps the ball slightly forward and to the side so that a team-mate can run on to it. The team-mate, like all other players, must be at least ten yards from the penalty mark when the ball is kicked. This strategy depends on the element of surprise, so that the team-mate can reach the ball ahead of any defenders. The first recorded two-man penalty was taken by Rik Coppens and André Piters in the World Cup Qualifying match Belgium v Iceland on 5 June 1957. Coppens passed the ball to Piters who returned the favour, allowing the former to score. It was later made famous by Johan Cruyff in a match for AFC Ajax in 1982 against Helmond Sport.
Arsenal players Thierry Henry and Robert Pirès famously failed in an attempt at a similar penalty in 2005, during a Premier League match against Manchester City at Highbury. Pirès ran in to take the kick, attempted to pass to the onrushing Henry, but miskicked; as he had touched the ball (but barely moved it), he could not touch it again, and City defender Sylvain Distin reached the ball before Henry could.

Infringements

In case of an infringement of the laws of the game during a penalty kick, most commonly entering the goal area illegally, the referee must consider both whether a goal was scored, and which team committed the offence.

Infringement by	The ball enters the goal	The ball does NOT enter the goal
Attacking player	Penalty is retaken	Indirect free kick to the defending team at the place of the infringement
Defending player	Goal	Penalty is retaken
Both	Penalty is retaken	Penalty is retaken

In the case of a player repeatedly infringing the laws during the penalty kick, the referee may caution the player for persistent infringement. Note that all offences that occur before kick are dealt with in this manner, regardless of the location of the offence.
If, after the penalty kick has been taken:

• the kicker touches the ball again (except with his hands) before it has touched another player:

• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred

• the kicker deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another player:

• a direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team, to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred

• the ball is touched by an outside agent (ex. dog) as it moves forward:

• the kick is retaken

• the ball rebounds into the field of play from the goalkeeper, the crossbar or the goalposts and is then touched by an outside agent (ex. dog):

• the referee stops play
• play is restarted with a dropped ball at the place where it touched the outside agent, unless it touched the outside agent inside the goal area, in which case the referee drops the ball on the goal area line parallel to the goal line at the point nearest to where the ball was located when play was stopped

Saving tactics

"Reading" the kicker

Defending against a penalty kick is one of the most difficult tasks a goalkeeper can face. Owing to the short distance between the penalty spot and the goal, there is very little time to react to the shot. Because of this, the goalkeeper will usually start his or her dive before the ball is actually struck. In effect, the goalkeeper must act on his best prediction about where the shot will be aimed. Some keepers decide which way they will dive beforehand, thus giving themselves a good chance of diving in time. Others try to read the kicker's motion pattern. On the other side, kickers often feign and prefer a relatively slow shot in an attempt to foil the keeper. The potentially most fruitful approach, shooting high and centre, i.e. in the space that the keeper will evacuate, also carries the highest risk of shooting above the bar. As the shooter makes his approach to the ball, the keeper has only a few seconds to "read" the shooter's motions and decide where the ball will go. If their guess is correct, this may result in a saved penalty. Helmuth Duckadam, the goalkeeper of Steaua Bucureşti, saved a record four consecutive penalties in the 1986 European Cup Final against FC Barcelona. He dived three times to the right and a fourth time to his left to save all penalties taken, securing victory for his team.

Use of knowledge of kicker's history

A goalkeeper may also rely on knowledge of the shooter's past behaviour to inform his decision. An example of this would be by former Netherlands national team goalkeeper Hans van Breukelen, who always had a box with cards with all the information about the opponent's penalty specialist. Ecuadorian goalkeeper Marcelo Elizaga, after saving a penalty from Carlos Tevez in a match between their national teams, revealed that he had studied some penalty kicks from Tevez and suspected he was going to shoot to the goalkeeper left side. Two other examples occurred during the 2006 FIFA World Cup:

1. Portugal national team goalkeeper Ricardo in a quarter-final match against England, where he saved three penalties.
2. The quarter-final match between Argentina and Germany also came down to penalties, and German goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was seen looking at a piece of paper kept in his sock before each Argentinian player would come forward for a penalty kick. It is presumed that information on each kicker's "habits" were written on this paper. Lehmann saved 2 of the 4 penalties taken.

This approach may not always be successful; the player may intentionally switch from his favoured spot after witnessing the goalkeeper obtaining knowledge of his kicks. Most times, especially in amateur football, the goalkeeper is often forced to guess. A 2011 study published in the journal Psychological Science found goalkeepers dove to the right 71% of the time when their team was losing, but only 48% when ahead and 49% when tied, a phenomenon believed to be related to certain right-preferring behaviour in social mammals.

Distraction

The goalkeeper also may try to distract the penalty taker, as the expectation is on the penalty taker to succeed, hence more pressure on the penalty taker, making him more vulnerable to mistakes. For example, in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final between Manchester United and Chelsea, United goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar pointed to his left side when Nicolas Anelka stepped up to take a shot in the penalty shoot out. This was because all of Chelsea's penalties went to the left. Anelka's shot instead went to Van der Sar's right, which was saved. Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar used a famous method of distracting the players called the "spaghetti legs" trick to help his club defeat Roma to win the 1984 European Cup. This tactic was emulated in the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final, which Liverpool also won, by Liverpool's goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek, helping his team defeat AC Milan.
An illegal method of saving penalties is for the goalkeeper to make a quick and short jump forward just before the penalty taker connects with the ball. This not only shuts down the angle of the shot, but also distracts the penalty taker. The method was used by Brazilian goalkeeper Taffarel. FIFA was less strict on the rule during that time. In more recent times, FIFA has advised all referees to strictly obey the rule book.
Similarly, a goalkeeper may also attempt to delay a penalty by cleaning his boots, asking the referee to see if the ball is placed properly and other delaying tactics. This method builds more pressure on the penalty taker, but the goalkeeper may risk punishments, most likely a yellow card.

Scoring statistics

Even if the keeper does manage to block the shot, the ball may rebound back to the shooter or one of his team-mates for another shot, with the keeper often in poor position to make a second save. This makes saving penalty kicks astonishingly difficult. This is not a concern in penalty shoot-outs, where just a single shot is permitted.
These factors would give one the impression that penalty kicks are scored almost 100% of the time. Missed penalty kicks, however, are not uncommon despite the simple circumstances. For instance, of the 78 penalty kicks taken during the 2005–06 English Premier League season, 57 resulted in a goal, meaning almost 30% of the penalties were unsuccessful.
A German professor who has been studying penalty statistics in the German Bundesliga for 16 years found that 76% of all the penalties during those 16 years went in, and 99% of the shots in the higher half of the goal went in, although the higher half of the goal is generally a more risky target to aim at. During his career, Italian striker Roberto Baggio had two occurrences where his shot hit the upper bar, bounced downwards, rebounded off the keeper and passed the goal line for a goal.

Law 13: Free kicks (direct and indirect)

Direct Free Kick

 A direct free kick is a method of restarting play in a game of association football following a foul. Unlike an indirect free kick, a goal may be scored directly against the opposing side without the ball having first touched another player.

Award

A direct free kick is awarded when a player commits a deliberate foul outside of the penalty box (for offsides, etc., an indirect free kick is awarded). However, if the offence was committed by the defending team within their own penalty area, the kick becomes a penalty kick.

Procedure

The kick is taken from where the foul occurred, unless it was within the fouled team's own goal area, in which case it may be taken from anywhere within the goal area. The ball must be stationary prior to being kicked. Opponents must remain 10 yards (9.1 metres) from the ball (also, outside of the penalty area if the kick is taken from within the defending team's penalty area) until the ball is in play. Observing the minimum distance limit, the opposite players may choose to form a "wall" between the ball and the goal.
To keep the initiative a quick free kick is sometimes taken without waiting for the opposing players to retire from the 9.15 m (10-yard) radius.
The ball becomes in play as soon as it is kicked and moves, unless the kick was taken from within the kicking team's penalty area, in which case it is in play once it has passed directly beyond the penalty area.
A goal may be scored directly from a direct free kick, but only against the opposing side (i.e. an own goal may not be scored). Should the ball directly land in the kicking team's own goal, a corner kick is awarded to the opposing team. A player may be penalised for an offside offence committed from a direct free kick; with the exception of receiving the ball directly from a goal kick or corner kick.

Scoring opportunities

There are three primary techniques used with direct free kicks. First, the player taking the direct free kick may blast the ball as hard as he can, usually with the laces of the boot. Alternatively, some players try to curl the ball around the keeper, with the inside or outside of the boot. Additionally, certain free kick specialists will choose to kick the ball with minimal spin, making the ball behave unpredictably in the air. Free kick takers may also attempt to cross the ball to their centre backs or strikers to get a header on goal, especially if the position of the free kick is close to the wings.

Infringements/Sanctions

If, when a free kick is taken, an opponent is closer to the ball than the required distance:

• The kick is retaken.

If, when the free kick is taken by the defending team from inside its own penalty area, the ball is not kicked directly out of the penalty area:

• The kick is retaken.

Free kicks taken by a player other than the goalkeeper
If, after the ball is in play, the kicker touches the ball again (except with his hands) before it has touched another player:

• An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team. The kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.

If, after the ball is in play, the kicker deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another player:

• A direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team. The kick is to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.
• A penalty kick is awarded if the infringement occurred inside the kicker's penalty area.

Free kick taken by the goalkeeper
If, after the ball is in play, the goalkeeper touches the ball again (except with his hands), before it has touched another player:

• An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.

If, after the ball is in play, the goalkeeper deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another player:

• A direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team if the infringement occurred outside the goalkeeper's penalty area, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.
• An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team if the infringement occurred inside the goalkeeper's penalty area, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.

Strategy

Most teams have one or two designated free kick takers, depending on the distance from goal and the side of the field the free kick is to be taken from. The strategy may be to score a goal directly from the free kick, or to use the free kick as the beginning of a set play leading towards a goal scoring opportunity.
Where there is a potential for a dangerous shot on goal to occur from a direct free kick often the defending side erects a "wall" of players standing side-by-side as a barrier to the shot. A kicker who has the skill to curl the ball around a wall is at a distinct advantage.
The 'wall' is the main defensive strategy for a direct free kick. It is a system of defending part of the goal from a free kick. The process includes positioning players 10 yards (9.1 metres) from the ball, while also joined together and placed in-between the ball and the goal. (See photo.) The number of players composing the wall varies based on distance. It is not fully known when the 'wall' was started however, it is widely accepted that Peter Reilly was the manager to perfect the art of the 'wall' and shape it into the effective defensive tool it is today.

Indirect Free Kick

 An indirect free kick is a method of restarting play in a game of association football. Unlike a direct free kick, a goal may not be scored directly from the kick. The law was derived from the Sheffield Rules that stated that no goal could be scored from a free kick. This law was absorbed into the Laws of the Game in 1877 and later adapted to allow direct free kicks as a result of dangerous play. An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team when a player commits a foul other than a penalty foul (e.g. dangerous play) or infringes certain technical requirements of the laws (e.g. touching the ball a second time following a restart, or the keeper touching the ball with his hands when a teammate has used his foot to pass it back to the keeper). An indirect free kick is also awarded to the opposing team when play is stopped to caution or send-off a player when no specific foul has occurred (e.g. when play is stopped to caution a player for dissenting the decision of the referee). The most common cause is the offside offence.
Unlike a direct free kick, an offence punishable by an indirect free kick does not result in a penalty kick when it occurs in the penalty area; rather, it continues to be taken as an indirect free kick.

Procedure

The kick is taken from where the infringement occurred, unless the offence was committed within the goal area of the team awarded the kick, in which case the kick may be taken from anywhere within the goal area. An indirect free kick within the opposing team's goal area is taken from the goal area line, parallel to the goal line, nearest to where the infringement occurred (i.e. at least 6 yards from the goal line).
The ball must be stationary prior to being kicked. Opponents must remain 10 yards (9.15m) from the ball (and also outside of the penalty area if the kick is taken from within the kicking team's penalty area) until the ball is in play. The exception to this is that opponents may be within 10 yards of the ball provided they are standing on their goal line between the goal posts.
The ball becomes in play when it has been kicked and moves, unless the kick was taken from within the kicking team's penalty area, in which case it is in play once it has passed completely out of the penalty area.
A goal may not be scored directly from an indirect free kick, rather it must be touched by a second player before a goal can be scored. If the ball goes in goal directly from an indirect free kick, a goal kick is awarded to the defending team. As with all restarts of play, if the ball goes directly into the kicker's own goal from an indirect free kick a corner kick is awarded to the opposing team.
The referee indicates an indirect free kick by raising his arm above his head until the kick has been taken and ball has touched another player other than the kicker or has gone out of play.

Infringements/Sanctions

If, when a free kick is taken, an opponent is closer to the ball than the required distance:

• the kick is retaken

If, when the free kick is taken by the defending team from inside its own penalty area, the ball does not travel directly out of the penalty area:

• the kick is retaken

Free kicks taken by a player other than the goalkeeper
If, after the ball is in play, the kicker touches the ball again (except with his hands) before it has touched another player:

• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred

If, after the ball is in play, the kicker deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another player:

• a direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team the kick is to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred
• a penalty kick is awarded if the infringement occurred inside the kicker's penalty area

Free kick taken by the goalkeeper
If, after the ball is in play, the goalkeeper touches the ball again (except with his hands), before it has touched another player:

• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred

If, after the ball is in play, the goalkeeper deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another player:

• a direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team if the infringement occurred outside the goalkeeper's penalty area, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred
• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team if the infringement occurred inside the goalkeeper's penalty area, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred

Law 12: Fouls and Misconduct

Fouls and misconduct in association football are acts committed by players which are considered deemed by the referee to be unfair and are subsequently penalized. An offence may be a foul, misconduct or both depending on the nature of the offence and the circumstances in which it occurs. Fouls and misconduct are addressed in Law 12 of the Laws of the Game.
A foul is an unfair act by a player which is deemed by the referee to contravene the game's laws. Fouls are punished by the award of a free-kick (direct or indirect depending on the offence) or penalty kick to the opposing team. For an act to be a foul it must:

• be a specific offence listed in Law 12 of the Laws of the Game (other infractions, for example technical infractions at restarts, are not deemed to be fouls);
• be committed by a player (not a substitute);
• occur on the field of play;
• be committed against an opponent, when applicable (For example, a player striking the referee or a teammate, is not a foul, but is a misconduct);
• occur while the ball is in play.

Misconduct is any conduct by a player that is deemed by the referee to warrant a disciplinary sanction (caution or dismissal). Misconduct may include acts which are, additionally, fouls. Misconduct may occur at any time, including when the ball is out of play, during half-time and before and after the game, and both players and substitutes may be sanctioned for misconduct. This is unlike a foul, which is committed by a player, on the field of play, and only against an opponent when the ball is in play.
Misconduct will result in the player either receiving a caution (indicated by a yellow card) or being dismissed ("sent off") from the field (indicated by a red card). When a player is cautioned, the player's details are traditionally recorded by the referee in a small notebook; hence, a caution is also known as a booking. The referee has considerable discretion in applying the Laws; in particular, the offence of "unsporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences.
The system of cautioning and dismissal has existed for many decades, but the idea of language-neutral coloured cards originated with British referee Ken Aston, who got the idea while sitting in his car at a traffic light.The first major use of the cards was in the 1970 FIFA World Cup, but they were not made mandatory at all levels until 1982.

Categories of foul

Direct free kick offences

A direct free kick is awarded when a player commits any of the following in a manner considered by the referee to be careless, reckless or using excessive force:

• Kicks or attempts to kick an opponent
• Trips or attempts to trip an opponent
• Jumps at an opponent
• Charges an opponent
• Strikes or attempts to strike an opponent
• Pushes an opponent
• Tackles an opponent

Or commits any the following offences:

• Holds an opponent
• Spits at an opponent
• Handles the ball deliberately (except for the goalkeeper within his own penalty area).

In determining whether or not a player deliberately handled the ball, the referee has several considerations:

• Movement of the hand towards the ball (not the ball towards the hand)
• Distance between the opponent and the ball (unexpected ball)
• Position of the hand ('natural' position versus 'unnatural' position) does not necessarily mean that there is an infringement
• Touching the ball with an object held in the hand (clothing, shinguard, etc.) counts as an infringement (considered an extension of the hand)
• Hitting the ball with a thrown object (boot, shinguard, etc.) counts as an infringement (also considered an extension of the hand)

If a player commits a direct free kick offence within his own penalty area, a penalty kick is awarded irrespective of the position of the ball, provided the ball is in play.

Indirect free kick offences

Fouls punishable by an indirect free kick are:

• When a goalkeeper, inside his own penalty area:
  • controls the ball with his hands for more than six seconds before releasing it from his possession
  • touches the ball again with his hands after he has released it from his possession and before it has touched another player
  • touches the ball with his hands after it has been deliberately kicked to him by a team-mate (the back-pass rule)
  • touches the ball with his hands after he has received it directly from a throw-in taken by a team-mate

• When any player in the opinion of the referee:
  • plays in a dangerous manner
  • impedes the progress of an opponent
  • prevents the goalkeeper from releasing the ball from his hands
  • commits any other offence, not previously mentioned in Law 12, for which play is stopped to caution or send off a player

Some technical breaches of the rules, such as the offside offence, result in play being restarted with an indirect free kick, though these are not considered fouls.

Other offences

Not all infractions of the Laws are fouls. Non-foul infractions may be dealt with as technical infractions (e.g. as breaching the rules governing the restarts of play) or misconduct (these are punishable by a caution or sending-off). Note that persistent fouls or infractions may be considered by the referee to be unsporting conduct, which can warrant an official caution.

Misconduct

The referee may consider serious and/or persistent offences to be misconduct worthy of an official caution or dismissal from the game. Association football was the first sport to use coloured cards to indicate these actions.

Yellow card (caution)

A yellow card is shown by the referee to indicate that a player has been officially cautioned. The player's details are then recorded by the referee in a small notebook; hence a caution is also known as a "booking". A player who has been cautioned may continue playing in the game; however, a player who receives a second caution in a match is sent off (shown the yellow card again, and then a red card (see below)), meaning that he must leave the field immediately and take no further part in the game. The player may not be replaced by a substitute. Law 12 of the Laws of the Game (which are set by the International Football Association Board and used by FIFA) lists the types of offences and misconduct that may result in a caution. It also states that "only a player, substitute or substituted player" can be cautioned. A player is cautioned and shown a yellow card if he/she commits any of the following offences:

1. Dissent by word or action
2. Persistent infringement on the Laws of the Game
3. Delaying the restart of play (includes deliberate time-wasting tactics)
4. Failure to respect the required distance when play is restarted with a corner kick, throw-in or free kick
5. Entering or re-entering the field of play without the referee's permission
6. Deliberately leaving the field of play without the referee's permission

In addition, a player can be cautioned and shown a yellow card for "unsporting behaviour". What constitutes cautionable unsporting behaviour is generally at the referee's discretion. This may include simulation intended to deceive the referee, or delaying the restart of play by withholding the ball. Poor or deliberate fouls are commonly punished by yellow cards, although some tackles, especially those which are dangerous, two-footed, or those which prevent a clear goal-scoring opportunity for the player tackled, may be punished by a red card.
A change in 2004 to the Laws of the Game championed by FIFA President Sepp Blatter mandated automatic yellow cards for players who remove their shirts while celebrating goals. In addition, an instruction has been in the additional instructions at the end of the Laws of the Game for some time that should a player jump over or climb on to a perimeter fence to the Field of Play, they should be cautioned for unsporting behaviour. This was seen as mainly preventing incidents in professional football matches where crowds had rushed towards players and had led to injuries.
In most tournaments, the accumulation of a certain number of yellow cards over several matches results in disqualification of the offending player for a certain number of subsequent matches, the exact number of cards and matches varying by jurisdiction. In the UEFA Champions League, for instance, accumulating two yellow cards in a stage of the tournament will lead to a one-game suspension; players have often intentionally collected the second yellow card which will "strategically" reset their tally of yellow cards to zero for the next stage but this is considered unsporting conduct.

Red card (dismissal)

A red card is shown by a referee to signify that a player has been sent off. A player who has been sent off is required to leave the field of play immediately and must take no further part in the game. Only players, substitutes and substituted players may receive a red card. If a team's goalkeeper receives a red card another player will be allowed to assume goalkeeping duties (teams will usually substitute an outfield player for another goalkeeper if this option is available).
Law 12 of the Laws of the Game lists the categories of misconduct for which a player may be sent off. These are:

1. Serious foul play (a violent foul)
2. Violent conduct (any other act of violence) e.g. assaulting the referee.
3. Spitting at anyone or another player
4. A deliberate handling offense to deny an obvious goal-scoring opportunity by any player other than a goalkeeper in his own penalty area
5. Committing an offence that denies an opponent an obvious goal-scoring opportunity (informally known as a professional foul)
6. Using offensive, insulting or abusive language or gestures
7. Receiving a second caution (yellow card) in the same game

In most tournaments, a single direct red card (i.e. not one received as a result of two successive yellow ones) results in disqualification of the offending player for one or more of subsequent matches, the exact number of matches varying by the offence committed and by jurisdiction. Should a team's on-field players receive a total of five red cards, they will be unable to field the required minimum of seven players and the match will be abandoned.

Law 11: Offside

Offside (sometimes known as offsides) is Law 11 in association football which states that if a player is in an offside position (as defined below) when the ball is touched or played by a team-mate, the player may not become actively involved in the play. A player is in an offside position when closer to the opponent's goal line than both the ball and the second-to-last defender (which is usually the last outfield player), and also in the opponent's half of the pitch. "Offside position" is a matter of fact, whereas committing an "offside offence" occurs when a player is "actively involved" and is subject to the interpretation of the referee. Goals scored after committing an offside offence are nullified if caught by the referee.

Application

The application of the offside rule may be considered in three steps: offside position, offside offence and offside sanction.

Offside position

A player is in an offside position if three conditions are met: first, the player must be in the opposing team's half of the field. Second, the player must be in front of the ball. And third, there must be fewer than two opposing players between him and the opposing goal line, with the goalkeeper counting as an opposing player for these purposes. It is not necessary that the goalkeeper be one of the last two opponents. Any attacker that is level with or behind the ball is not in an offside position and may never be sanctioned for an offside offence. IFAB has clarified in the 2009–2010 Laws of the Game that a player temporarily off the field of play is considered to be ON the boundary line at the point that he crossed over the boundary line. The 2005 edition of the Laws of the Game included a new International Football Association Board decision that stated being "nearer to an opponent's goal line" meant that "any part of his head, body or feet is nearer to his opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent (the last opponent typically being the goalkeeper)." This is taken to mean that any part of the attacking player named in this decision has to be past the part of the second-last defender closest to his goal line and past the part of the ball closest to the defenders' goal line. (The hands are not part of the body).
Regardless of position, there is no offside offence if a player receives the ball directly from a corner kick, goal kick, or throw-in. However, an offside offence may occur if a player receives the ball directly from either a direct free kick or an indirect free kick.

Offside offence

A player in an offside position at the moment the ball is touched or played by a teammate is only committing an offside offence if, in the opinion of the referee, he becomes actively involved in play by:

Interfering with play

playing or touching the ball passed or touched by a team-mate

Interfering with an opponent

preventing an opponent from playing or being able to play the ball by clearly obstructing the opponent’s line of vision or movements or making a gesture or movement which, in the opinion of the referee, deceives or distracts an opponent.

Gaining an advantage by being in an offside position

playing a ball that rebounds to him off a goalpost or the crossbar having been in an offside position or playing a ball that rebounds to him off an opponent having been in an offside position.

Since offside is judged at the time the ball is touched or played by a teammate, not when the player receives the ball, it is possible for a player to receive the ball significantly past the second-to-last defender, or even the last defender (typically the goalkeeper).
Determining whether a player is in "active play" can be complex. The famous quote: "If you're not interfering with play, what are you doing on the pitch?", has been attributed variously to Danny Blanchflower, Brian Clough, and Bill Shankly. FIFA issued new guidelines for interpreting the offside law in 2003 and these were incorporated in Law XI in July 2005. The new wording seeks to define the three cases more precisely, but controversy regarding offside decisions often arises from assessment of what movements a player in an offside position can make without interfering with an opponent.

Offside sanction

The restart for an offside sanction is an indirect free kick for the opponent at the place where the off-sided player was at the time the teammate passed or touched the ball. This is defined as where the infringement took place.

Officiating

In enforcing this rule, the referee depends greatly on an assistant referee, who generally keeps in line with the second-to-last defender, the ball, or the halfway line, whichever is closer to the goal line of their relevant end. An assistant referee signals that an offside offence has occurred by first raising their flag upright without movement and then, when acknowledged by the referee, by raising their flag in a manner that signifies the location of the offence:

• Flag pointed at a 45-degree angle downwards: offence has occurred in the third of the pitch nearest to the assistant referee;
• Flag parallel to the ground: offence has occurred in the middle third of the pitch;
• Flag pointed at a 45-degree angle upwards: offence has occurred in the third of the pitch furthest from the assistant referee.

The assistant referees' task with regard to offside can be difficult, as they need to keep up with attacks and counter-attacks, consider which players are in an offside position when the ball is played, and then determine whether and when the offside-positioned players become involved in active play. The risk of false judgement is further increased by the foreshortening effect, which occurs when the distance between the attacking player and the assistant referee is significantly different from the distance to the defending player, and the assistant referee is not directly in line with the defender. The difficulty of offside officiating is often underestimated by spectators. Trying to judge if a player is level with an opponent at the moment the ball is kicked is not easy: if an attacker and a defender are running in opposite directions, they can be two metres apart in a tenth of a second.
Some researchers believe that offside officiating errors are "optically inevitable". It has been argued that human beings and technological media are incapable of accurately detecting an offside position quickly enough to make a timely decision. Sometimes it simply is not possible to keep all the relevant players in the visual field at once. There have been some proposals for automated enforcement of the offside rule.

Law 10: The Method of Scoring

In association football, the goal is the only method of scoring. It is also used to refer to the scoring structure. A deliberate attempt on goal is referred to as a "shot". To score a goal, the ball must pass completely over the goal line between the goal posts and under the crossbar and no rules may be violated on the play (such as touching the ball with the hand or arm). See also offside.
The goal structure is defined as a frame 24 feet (7.32 m) wide by 8 feet (2.44 m) tall. In most organized levels of play a net is attached behind the goal frame to catch the ball and indicate that a goal has been scored; but the Laws of the Game do not mandate the use of a net and only require that any net used not interfere with the goalkeeper.

Law 9: Ball in and out of play

The ball in and out of play is the ninth law of the Laws of the Game of association football, and describes to the two basic states of play in the game.

In play

The ball remains in play from the beginning of each period to the end of that period, except when:

• The ball leaves the field by entirely crossing a goal line or touch line (this includes when a goal is scored); or
• Play is stopped by the referee (for example when a foul has been committed, a player is seriously injured, or the ball becomes defective).

The Law specifically notes that the ball remains in play if it rebounds off a goal frame, corner flag, referee or assistant referee, assuming that they are on the field of play at the time.
When the ball is in play players may play the ball, contest the ball, and goals may be scored. Players are liable to punishment for committing either fouls or misconduct. Substitutions may not occur whilst the ball is in play.

Restarts

When the ball becomes out of play, the ball is put back into play be the appropriate restart. The restarts in football are:

• Throw-in: when the ball has entirely crossed the touch line; awarded to opposing team to that which last touched the ball. (Law 15).
• Indirect free kick: awarded to the opposing team following "non-penal" fouls (like obstruction, offside, etc.), certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution/send-off an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. (Law 13).
• Direct free kick: awarded to fouled team following certain listed "penal" fouls, (Law 13) and certain "dead-ball" methods of restarts that include
  • Kick-off: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play. (Law 8).
  • Goal kick: when the ball has entirely crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by an attacker; awarded to defending team. (Law 16).
  • Penalty kick: awarded to fouled team following "penal" foul having occurred in their opponent's penalty area. (Law 14).
  • Corner kick: when the ball has entirely crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a defender; awarded to attacking team. (Law 17).
• Dropped-ball: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason (e.g. a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective). This restart is uncommon in adult games. (Law 8).

Once the ball is out of play, the only restart is the restart appropriate for the reason the ball went out of play in the first place; subsequent actions do not change the restart. For example, if the ball goes out of play because of a foul by Team A against Team B, the restart must be a free kick to Team B even if a Team B player strikes an opponent; offending Team B player would, however, be liable for misconduct (i.e. yellow card or red card).
Note, however, that the referee may change the original restart if he realises he has made an error or on the advice of his assistant referees, provided play has not yet restarted. For example, if the ball has gone out of play because the ball was kicked into goal by Team A and the referee has signalled that a goal has been scored, but then notices that an assistant referee has indicated a foul by a Team A player immediately before the goal was scored, the referee would change to the correct restart of a free kick to Team B where the foul occurred.

Law 8: The start and restart of play

The Start and Restart of Play is the 8th of the Laws of the Game of association football. It concerns the methods of starting or restarting play in a game via the kick-off and dropped ball. Other methods of restarting play are addressed in other laws.

Kick-off

Award

A kick-off is used to start each half of play, and each period of extra time where applicable. The kick-off to start a game is awarded to the team that lost the pre-game coin toss (the team that won the coin-toss chooses which direction they wish to play). The kick-off begins when the referee blows the whistle. The kick-off to start the second half is taken by the other team. If extra time is played another coin-toss is used at the beginning of this period.
A kick-off is also used to restart play after a goal is scored, and is taken by the team that conceded the goal.

Procedure

The kick-off is taken from the center spot. All players must be in their own half of the field of play, and all opposing players must remain at least 10 yards (9.16m) from the ball (a distance marked on the pitch by the centre circle), until the ball is in play.
The ball is initially stationary until it is put into play. The ball is in play when it is kicked and moves forward. The player who has first kicked the ball may not touch it again until it has been touched by another player. Because of this, play is almost always started with two players at the center spot - one to kick the ball forward a few inches, and the second to pass the ball backwards to the rest of the team.
A goal may be scored directly from a kick-off.

Infringements

If a player moves from their required position as detailed above, or if the ball is not kicked forward, the kick is retaken. Failure to maintain position may constitute misconduct and be punished by a caution (yellow card).
It is an offence for the kicker to touch the ball a second time until it has been touched by another player; this is punishable by an indirect free kick to the defending team from where the offence occurred, unless the second touch was also a more serious handling offence, in which case it is punishable by a direct free kick.

Dropped ball

Award

A drop-ball is not awarded to either team; rather it is used to restart play when the referee has stopped play for any reason not listed for another form of restart. Examples include when play has been stopped due to serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective.

Procedure

The ball is dropped by the referee at the point where the ball was when play was stopped, unless this is within a goal area in which case it is dropped on the goal area line parallel to the goal line. The ball becomes in play as soon as it touches the ground. Players must not touch the ball until it has touched the ground. If the ball leaves the field of play before it has been touched by a player, the drop-ball is retaken.

Infringements

There is no mention in the Laws of the Game as to how many players, if any, may take part in a drop-ball or where they may be positioned. However, it is normal that a drop-ball is contested by two players (one from each team, as pictured above), like at a face-off in bandy or ice hockey.
If a player touches the ball before it touches the ground, the drop-ball is retaken. If a player persistently touches the ball before it touches the ground, and the referee believes that the player is deliberately doing so, this may be considered misconduct and the referee may caution the player with a yellow card.

Use in the modern game

This method of restarting play is rarely used in modern adult football as many players sportingly elect to kick the ball out of play when an event requiring the stoppage of play – most often an injury – occurs. After the situation has been resolved, the opposing team typically, but not always, concedes possession to the other team after returning the ball into play, as a gesture of good sportsmanship.

 

Law 7: The Duration of the Match

A standard adult football match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each, known as halves. Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play. There is usually a 15-minute half-time break between halves. The end of the match is known as full-time. The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is called additional time in FIFA documents, but most commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time, while loss time can also be used as a synonym. The duration of stoppage time is at the sole discretion of the referee. The referee alone signals the end of the match. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, toward the end of the half the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time he intends to add. The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number. The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee. Added time was introduced because of an incident which happened in 1891 during a match between Stoke and Aston Villa. Trailing 1–0 and with just two minutes remaining, Stoke were awarded a penalty. Villa's goalkeeper kicked the ball out of the ground, and by the time the ball had been recovered, the 90 minutes had elapsed and the game was over. The same law also stands that the duration of either half is extended until the penalty kick to be taken or retaken is completed, thus no game shall end with a penalty to be taken.
In league competitions, games may end in a draw. In knockout competitions where a winner is required various methods may be employed to break such a deadlock, some competitions may invoke replays. A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Goals scored during extra time periods count toward the final score of the game, but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored in a penalty shootout not making up part of the final score).
In competitions using two-legged matches, each team competes at home once, with an aggregate score from the two matches deciding which team progresses. Where aggregates are equal, the away goals rule may be used to determine the winners, in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg they played away from home. If the result is still equal, extra time and potentially a penalty shootout are required.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the IFAB experimented with ways of creating a winner without requiring a penalty shootout, which was often seen as an undesirable way to end a match. These involved rules ending a game in extra time early, either when the first goal in extra time was scored (golden goal), or if one team held a lead at the end of the first period of extra time (silver goal). Golden goal was used at the World Cup in 1998 and 2002. The first World Cup game decided by a golden goal was France's victory over Paraguay in 1998. Germany was the first nation to score a golden goal in a major competition, beating Czech Republic in the final of Euro 1996. Silver goal was used in Euro 2004. Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB.

Law 6: The Assistant Referees

In association football, an assistant referee (known as a linesman or lineswoman before 1997) is an official empowered with assisting the referee in enforcing the Laws of the Game during a match. At most organized levels of football the match officiating crew consists of the referee and two assistant referees, with one assistant referee assigned to each touchline. The assistant referee's duties generally consist of judging when the ball has left the field of play – including which team is entitled to return the ball to play, judging when an offside offence has occurred, and advising the referee when an infringement of the Laws of the Game has occurred out of his or her view. Depending on the local match rules and the discretion of the referee, an assistant referee may also be responsible for various administrative tasks, for example managing substitutions, helping the referee control the players, or replacing the referee if he or she is unable to continue. The assistant referee functions in an advisory role, and all judgments made by an assistant referee may be overruled by the referee.
At higher levels of play the referee is also assisted by a fourth official. The fourth official's duties are usually administrative in nature and vary depending on the match rules and the discretion of the referee. Common duties for a fourth official may include managing technical areas and substitutions, maintaining a backup record of the score and cautions/send-offs, and displaying information on substitutions and extra time to spectators. Depending on the local match rules, the fourth official may replace the referee or one of the assistant referees if they are unable to continue.

General duties

Law 6 of the Laws of the Game specifies that "two assistant referees may be appointed". It also outlines the general duties of the assistant referees; however, their duties in a given game remain subject to the decision of the referee. These duties usually include indicating:

• when the whole ball has passed outside the field of play
• which side is entitled to return the ball into the field of play
• when a player may be penalised for an offside offence
• when a substitution is being requested, or assisting the fourth official (if present) in doing the same
• when offences or other infringements of the Laws of the Game have been committed of which the referee does not have an adequate view

All decisions by the assistant referees are only advisory to the referee; assistants do not make binding decisions. An assistant referee may also be called upon by the referee to provide an opinion regarding matters which the referee requires clarification on. Occasionally the assistant referee will assist in player management during free kicks, as well as provide visual assistance during penalty kicks. The assistant referees also usually assist the referee with preparatory and administrative functions.
Assistant referees wear a uniform identical to that of the referee and carry brightly-colored flags (usually red, yellow, or some pattern involving those colors) which are used to indicate their decisions to the referee, players, and spectators. During the game each assistant referee oversees one touch-line and one end of the field utilising the diagonal system of control. The more senior of the two assistants will normally occupy the side of the field containing the technical areas, to help oversee substitutions. At higher levels of play, the assistant referees' flags may be equipped with buttons that the assistant referee may press to send an audible signal to the referee in order to get the referee's attention. Also at the highest levels of play, particularly in matches held in large stadiums, the entire officiating crew may be equipped with wireless microphones and earpieces to facilitate vocal communication across long distances or through loud stadium noise.
Assistant referees were formerly called linesmen. In 1996, the name was changed, primarily to better reflect the modern role of these officials, and secondarily to become non-gender specific. They are also sometimes incorrectly referred to as "referee's assistants". However the term "linesman" is still commonly used, including at lower levels of play where, if the match governing body does not appoint assistant referees to a match, a referee may be empowered to appoint volunteer "club linesmen" who may usually only assist the referee in judging whether the ball has left the field of play.

Fourth official

The fourth official assists the referee in a variety of tasks, and may be called upon to replace another match official.
The fourth official is a recent addition to the officiating crew. English referee and administrator Ken Aston introduced the practice of having a named replacement referee in 1966, but the International Football Association Board (IFAB) did not officially create the position until 1991, and listed only areas of responsibility. The fourth official is simply instructed to assist the referee at all times, and his duties are largely at the discretion of the referee. His usual duties can be broadly divided into assisting functions and a replacement function (see below).
The fourth official typically has a table a short distance from the touchline between the two teams' technical areas, however his positioning is not defined by the Laws of the Game.

 

In usual practice, the fourth official assists the referee in the following ways:

• Assisting with administrative functions before, during and after the match;
• Assessment of players' equipment;
• Ensuring substitutions are conducted in an orderly manner;
• Notifying the referee of the details of the substitution, by means of numbered boards or electronic displays (where supplied);
• Notifying the teams and spectators, by means of numbered boards or electronic displays where supplied, of the amount of time added on at the end of each half, after having been advised of this by the referee;
• Acting as the contact point between the match officiating crew and any non-participants (such as stadium managers, security personnel, broadcast crews, and ball retrievers);
• Maintaining decorum in the teams' technical areas and interceding in situations where coaches, bench personnel, or substitutes become agitated;

In practice, the fourth official becomes a key member of the officiating team, who can watch the field and players and advise the Referee on situations that are going on out of his sight. The fourth official keeps an extra set of records, and helps make sure the Referee does not make a serious error such as cautioning the wrong player, or giving two cautions to the same player and forgetting to send off the player^.
The fourth official played a significant role in the 2006 World Cup Final when fourth official Luis Medina Cantalejo informed referee Horacio Elizondo of the headbutt of France's Zinedine Zidane against Marco Materazzi, resulting in Elizondo showing Zidane a red card and sending him from the field. French manager Raymond Domenech accused Cantalejo of using the replay board to initiate the process that led to Zidane's ejection, which would have broken FIFA rules, but FIFA maintained that Cantalejo did not breach any rules and acted properly.
The fourth official serves as a replacement official in the event that one of the other officials (referee or assistant referees) cannot continue officiating (usually through injury).
In situations where an assistant referee is unable to continue, the fourth official replaces that assistant referee. In situations where the referee is unable to continue, the fourth official replaces the referee directly, or the senior assistant referee replaces the referee, with the fourth official in turn taking an assistant's position. Competition rules are supposed to clarify which of these options is to occur. If for some reason it is not stated, then typically the official with the most refereeing experience (either the fourth official or the senior assistant referee) will replace the referee.

Extra officials

Assistants beyond those discussed above are generally uncommon. However, extra official roles have been trialled in a few international tournaments.

Fifth official

For matches in the 2006 World Cup, FIFA assigned five officials. The role of the fifth official is to assist the fourth official in a variety of tasks, and potentially be called upon to replace another match official if necessary, for example in the case of injury. If an assistant referee could not carry on his duties, the fifth official was to be the primary replacement, whereas the fourth official was the referee's primary replacement.This distinction was made to reflect the fact that assistant referees and referees perform different tasks.
The fifth official had access to television coverage of the match, but was not permitted to advise the on field referees of any incidents they had missed. Speaking after the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final, Italy coach Marcello Lippi claimed that the referee had sent off France player Zinedine Zidane after receiving advice from "the fourth and fifth officials looking at the video at the edge of the pitch". These claims were subsequently denied by FIFA.

Additional assistant referee

Recent trials, for example at the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League group stage, have been started to make place for an additional two assistant referees to be added to the game, positioned behind the goal lines, to "ensure that the Laws of the Game are upheld, informing the referee of incidents of any kind that he may otherwise have missed, particularly in key areas of the field like the penalty area and its surroundings," but only informing the referee of their observings through a wireless communication system. Their positioning gives a good view to assist the referee in "ghost goal"-type incidents. The trial was evaluated by IFAB technical experts.
This trial was later extended to the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League and qualifying games and the final tournament for the UEFA Euro 2012. Their reception has been mixed. Following a two-year experiment in the UEFA Champions League, Europa League and EURO 2012, as well as the AFC President's Cup and competitions in Brazil, France, Italy, Morocco and Qatar, the use of additional assistant referees was approved by the International Football Association Board (IFAB) in July 2012. Additional assistant referees were used in the 2013 Scottish Cup Final, the first time they had been utilised in a domestic match in Scottish football.

Law 5: The Referee

In association football, the referee is the person responsible for enforcing the Laws of the Game during the course of a match. He or she is the final decision-making authority on all facts connected with play, and is the only official on the pitch with the authority to start and stop play and impose disciplinary action against players during a match. At most levels of play the referee is assisted by two assistant referees (formerly known as linesmen), who are empowered to advise the referee in certain situations such as the ball leaving play or infringements of the Laws of the Game occurring out of the view of the referee; however, the assistant referees' decisions are not binding and the referee has authority to overrule an assistant referee. At higher levels of play the referee may also be assisted by a fourth official who supervises the teams' technical areas and assists the referee with administrative tasks.
The vast majority of referees are amateur, though they are usually paid a small fee and/or expenses for their services. However, in some countries a limited number of referees – who mainly officiate in their country's top league – are employed full-time by their national associations and receive a retainer at the start of every season plus match fees.
Referees are licensed and trained by the same national organisations that are members of FIFA. Each national organisation recommends its top officials to FIFA to have the additional honour of being included on the FIFA International Referees List. International games between national teams require FIFA officials. Otherwise, the local national organisation determines the manner of training, ranking and advancement of officials from the youngest youth games through professional matches.

Powers and duties

The referee's powers and duties are described by Law 5 of the Laws of the Game.These include: Powers

• stopping, suspending or terminating the match at his discretion, for any infringements of the Laws;
• stopping, suspending or terminating the match because of outside interference of any kind;
• stopping the match if, in his opinion, a player is seriously injured and ensuring that he is removed from the field of play. An injured player may only return to the field of play after the match has restarted;
• allowing play to continue until the ball is out of play if a player is, in his opinion, only slightly injured;
• allowing play to continue when the team against which an offence has been committed will benefit from such an advantage and penalising the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue;
• taking disciplinary action against players guilty of cautionable and sending-off offences. He is not obliged to take this action immediately but must do so when the ball next goes out of play;
• taking action against team officials who fail to conduct themselves in a responsible manner and may, at his discretion, expel them from the field of play and its immediate surrounds.

Duties

• enforcing the Laws of the Game;
• controlling the match in co-operation with the assistant referees and, where applicable, with the fourth official;
• ensuring that any ball used meets the requirements of Law 2;
• ensuring that the players' equipment meets the requirements of Law 4;
• acting as timekeeper and keeping a record of the match;
• ensuring that any player bleeding from a wound leaves the field of play. The player may only return on receiving a signal from the referee, who must be satisfied that the bleeding has stopped;
• punishing the more serious offence when a player commits more than one offence at the same time;
• acting on the advice of the assistant referees regarding incidents that he has not seen;
• ensuring that no unauthorised persons enter the field of play;
• indicating the restart of the match after it has been stopped;
• providing the appropriate authorities with a match report, which includes information on any disciplinary action taken against players and/or team officials, substitutions and any other incidents that occurred before, during or after the match.

As per Law 9 of the game (Ball in and out of play), if during the game the ball hits the referee (or an assistant) there is no stoppage in play. However the officials would be expected to position themselves such that this would be unlikely to occur.

Uniform and equipment

Modern day referees and their assistants wear a uniform consisting of a jersey, badge, shorts and socks: until the 1950s it was more common for a referee to wear a blazer than a jersey. Traditionally that uniform was almost always all black, unless one of the teams was wearing a very dark jersey in which case the referee would wear another colour of jersey (usually red) to distinguish himself from both teams. At the 1994 World Cup finals, new jerseys were introduced that gave officials a choice of burgundy, yellow or white, and at the same time the creation of the Premier League in England saw referees wear green jerseys: both changes were motivated by television considerations. Since then, most referees have worn either yellow or black, but the colours and styles adopted by individual associations vary greatly. For international contests under the supervision of FIFA, Adidas uniforms are worn because Adidas is the current sponsor. FIFA allows referees to wear five colours: black, red, yellow, green and blue. Along with the jersey, referees are required to wear black shorts, black socks (with white stripes in some cases), and black shoes. The badge, which displays the referee's license level and year of validity, is often affixed to the left chest pocket.
All referees carry a whistle, a watch, penalty cards, a data wallet with pen and paper, and a coin for determining who gets the first kick-off in each half. Most are encouraged to have more than one of each on them in case they drop a whistle or a pen runs out and so on. Often, referees utilize two watches so that they can use one to calculate time lost for stoppages for the purposes of added time. At the highest levels, referees wear a full duplex radio with customized headset to communicate between each other and assistant referees use electronic flags, which send a signal to the referee when a button is pushed. In matches with goal-line technology, the referee will have on their person a device to receive the system's alerts.

Whistle

Referees use a whistle to help in match control. The whistle is sometimes needed to stop, start or restart play but should not be used for all stoppages, starts or restarts. FIFA’s Laws of the Game document gives guidance as to when the whistle should and should not be used. Overuse of the whistle is discouraged since, as stated in the Laws, “A whistle which is used too frequently unnecessarily will have less impact when it is needed."The whistle is an important tool for the Referee along with verbal, body and eye communication.
Before the introduction of the whistle, referees indicated their decisions by waving a white handkerchief. The whistles that were first adopted by referees were made by Joseph Hudson at Mills Munitions in Birmingham, England. The ACME Whistle Company (based at Mills Munitions Factory) first began to mass-produce pea whistles in the 1870s for the Metropolitan Police Service. It is frequently stated the referee's whistle was first used in a game between Nottingham Forest and Sheffield Norfolk in 1878; however the last such fixture known to have taken place between the two clubs was in 1874. The Nottingham Forest account book of 1872 apparently recorded the purchase of an “umpire’s whistle” and in 1928 an article by R M Ruck about his playing days in the early 1870s referred to the use of a whistle by umpires to indicate an infringement.
The whistle was not mentioned in the Laws of the Game until 1936 when an IFAB Decision was added as footnote (b) to Law 2, stating "A Referee's control over the players for misconduct or ungentlemanly behaviour commences from the time he enters the field of play, but his jurisdiction in connection with the Laws of the Game commences from the time he blows his whistle for the game to start."
In 2007, when IFAB greatly expanded the Laws of the Game Additional Instructions section, a full page of advice on how and when the whistle should be used as a communication and control mechanism by the referee became available.

History

Referees in football are first described by Richard Mulcaster in 1581. In this description of "foteball" he advocates the use of a "judge over the parties". In the modern era, referees are first advocated in English public school football games, notably Eton football in 1845.A match report from Rochdale in 1842 shows their use in a football game between the Bodyguards Club and the Fearnought Club.
In the early years of the codified sport it was assumed that disputes could be adequately settled by discussion between gentlemen players who would never deliberately commit a foul, however as play became more competitive the need for officials grew. Initially there existed two umpires, one per team, who could be appealed to with the referee (the game's timekeeper) being "referred" to if the umpires couldn't agree.
The promotion of referees to the dominant position they occupy today, and the reformation of umpires into the linesmen role, occurred as part of a major restructuring of the laws in 1891.

Positioning and responsibilities

The diagonal system of control is the predominant system of positioning and division of responsibility used by football match officials throughout the world. It is the only system authorized by the Laws of the Game.

Diagonal system of control

In the diagonal system of control, the referee has final decision-making authority on all matters. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees who advise the referee. An assistant referee's judgment is only enforced if the referee accepts that judgment, and the referee has the authority to unilaterally overrule an assistant referee. The referee is the only official empowered with starting and stopping play, and meting out disciplinary actions such as cautions or send-offs. The division of responsibility among the three match officials can best be described by outlining their basic duties:
First, the two assistant referees are instructed by the referee to each patrol half of a single touchline on opposite sides of the field. For example, on a field running north-south, one assistant referee (AR) would run on the eastern touchline from the north goal line to the halfway line, while the other assistant referee would run on the western touchline from the south goal line to the halfway line. In general, the assistant referees' duties would be to indicate (using their flags): when an offside offence has occurred in their half, when a ball has left the pitch, and if a foul has been executed out of the view of the referee (typically in their quadrant of the field). Generally, the ARs will position themselves in line with either the second to last opponent or the ball – whichever is closer to the goal line – to better judge offside infractions. However, the assistant referee will have specific positioning with respect to corner kicks, penalty kicks, and throw-ins.
The referee patrols the length of the field to cover the ground not covered by his two assistants, generally running in a diagonal pattern from the southeast quadrant of the field towards the northwest quadrant; hence the term "diagonal system of control". Note that this pattern is not a specific route but a general guideline that should be modified to the style of play, nature of the game, the location of play at a given time, etc. In some cases the referee may even exit the field if it aids in his decision making ability. The main idea is that the referee and assistants using the DSC should be able to position themselves quickly and easily to observe the important aspects of play (offside, ball in or out of play, goal-scoring opportunities, challenges for the ball) from multiple angles with multiple sets of eyes.
Note that the description above refers to a left diagonal system of control, known as "running a left" or "standard diagonal". If, before the match, the center referee on this field decides to run from southwest to northeast, then the assistants must position themselves accordingly and the result will be a right diagonal system of control, otherwise referred to as "running a right" or "reverse diagonal".
In international matches the left-wing diagonal shown above has been universal since the 1960s. It is now predominant across the world. England until recently was an exception to this convention. Until 1974 referees in the Football League were required to run both diagonals during a match, most opting to run from right wing to right wing in the first half before switching to the left-wing diagonal for the second half. The chief reason for this alternation was to avoid linesmen wearing down the same part of the touchline during matches – this was important given the generally lower quality of pitches at the time. However switching diagonal was also justified in terms of allowing officials to patrol different areas of the field during games. From the 1974–75 season English referees were allowed to run the same diagonal throughout the same match. Most initially opted for the right-wing diagonal although over the years the left-wing diagonal became increasingly popular and the preferred choice of most referees by the early 2000s. From 2007–08 the left-wing diagonal has been mandatory in English professional football although some referees at lower levels still use the opposite approach.
Its implementation as a standard practice for referees is attributed to Sir Stanley Rous, former referee and President of FIFA from 1961 to 1974.

Two referees

While the Laws of the Game and FIFA mandate for a single referee with assistants as described above, a less common system, the dual system of control, has two referees with no assistants. The system is used some matches played under the rules of the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) in the United States, and in other youth and/or amateur matches. Both referees have equal authority, and the decision of one referee is binding on the other. Each referee is primarily responsible for a specific area of the field similar to those of the assistant referees in the diagonal system, except that the referees are allowed and encouraged to move away from the touch line into the field, particularly as play approaches the goal lines. Like the assistant referees in the diagonal system, each referee is responsible for patrolling one touch line and one goal line and determining possession for the restart if the ball goes out of play on either of those two boundaries.
Positioning in the dual system is similar to that used by officials in basketball: each referee is either termed the "lead" or the "trail", depending on the direction of the attack. If the attack is against the goal to the referee's right (when facing the field from his/her assigned touch line), then that referee is the lead, and the other is the trail. The lead is positioned ahead of the play, even with the second-to-last defender to the extent possible, while the trail is positioned behind the play. Both are responsible for calling fouls and misconduct and determining the restart when the ball goes out of play on one of their assigned boundary lines. Since the lead is in a better position to determine offside, the lead is responsible for calling offside, while the trail provides an extra monitor for fouls and misconduct while the lead's attention is focused on offside. When the attack changes direction, the trail becomes the lead and vice-versa.
Although use of the two referee system is mainly in amateur football, FIFA has experimented with it, and UEFA has lobbied FIFA to implement it at the highest levels of the game.